Science, Scientific Method and Critique

Introduction

Science is any branch of study which employs scientific method. So it's not the subject matter but the method of study which determines whether a subject is science or not. There are many ways through which there can be knowledge of anything. One can have the knowledge of monsoon from an expert on meteorology. On the other hand, the same monsoon can be known through the prediction of the elder of a village community.  Through religious scriptures, one can have the knowledge of God. The socialization of an individual determines his view or knowledge about the society around him. So we can have know about the phenomena around us employing different kind of methods like consulting elders, consulting some religious books, consulting experts or even through own intuition. Similarly, Scientific method is a method to gain knowledge about phenomena around us but this method is distinct from all other methods in that it employs a pre-determined logic and rationality based direct approach towards study. Scientific method is based on direct and systematic empirical observation and verification of phenomena. It is this approach which distinguishes it from other methods of observation.

Critique

The most direct criticism is that we cannot have knowledge of each and everything from direct observations. For Example, How much does a mother loves her child can hardly be observed. So, Most of the faith-based phenomena can be taken out of the purview of Scientific Method. Similarly it is hardly debated whether Society can be observed just like a physical body and hence whether Scientific Method can be employed in the study of society or not?There is one more criticism which is highly popular in philosophical debates. It doubts the validity of generalization about a phenomenon after observing a few events, as done in Scientific Method.

Reference

• Prince Kadyan's Notes

Theory and fact

A theory is a plausible explanation about social phenomenon or a class of social phenomena, logically constructed and systematically organised that underscores the relationship between two well defined variables. It is more that a hypothesis or speculation reasoning but far from a scientific law, that is supported by evidence. a theory is thus contrasted with a fact, law and practice. A fact is a n empirical, verifiable observation whereas a theory is a systematized statement of relationship between facts. A theory can not be derived from empirical observation and generalization merely by means of rigorous induction. A theory is a symbolic construction and theory is matter of creative achievement. Theory is a broad explanation for a wide range of phenomena. Theories are concise, coherent, systematic, predictive, and broadly applicable. They usually integrate many individual hypotheses. A scientific theory must be testable with evidence from the natural world. If a theory can't be tested with experimental results, observation, or some other means, then it is not a scientific theory.

References

• Abraham, M. Francis (2006). Contemporary Sociology: An Introduction to Concepts and Theories. New Delhi: Oxford University Press
•  Berkeley Glossary

A good hypothesis

In social research, after selection of a topic/problem and review of literature; next logical step is formulation of a hypothesis or set of hypothesis. Based on his/her experience the researcher may assume possible relation between certain sets of variables. He/She may also infer such relationships from the literature review. Now, he formally states his/her expectation in the form of a series of hypothesis.

A hypothesis is statement of the relationship between two or more variables. For example, one might state that there is positive relationship between  two or more variables. For example, one might state that there is positive relationship between alcoholism and spousal abuse or between the practice of untouchability and inter-caste conflict. A good hypothesis, however has more than just a formal statement. It is also require an operational definition of the concepts, that is a precise and measurable definition of variables. The terms like 'old people' or 'senior citizens' are meaningless for scientific inquiry but if we say persons sixty years of age and older, we have an operational definition of the variable.

Similarly, hypothesis must be testable. Assertion that 'God exists' may be wonderful idea but it is not a research question.

Nomothetic and Idiographic Methods

Nomotheic methods is one of the research method in which analysis is directed towards formulation of general principles. From sociological perspective, application of this method entails that individual events are studied not for their own sake but for their significance in so far as they contribute to the formulation of generalization. Sociology and physical sciences are regarded as nomothetic sciences because of their primary goal is to abstract generalization from specific event and individual facts. 

Idiographic method on the other hand is a technique of studying human behaviour by a thorough analysis of individual cases. Here emphasis is more on detailed description and in-dept study than on generalizations  The case study method may be considered on idiographic method where emphasis is on the complete understanding of each individual case rather than upon deriving analytical generalization from characteristics of a large number of cases. History is regarded as an idiographic discipline because it is more concerned with study of particular event.

Content Analysis

A methodology in he social sciences for studying the content of communication. Earl Babbie defines it as "The Study of recorded human communication, such as book, websites, paintings and law". It is most commonly used by researchers in the social sciences to analyse recorded transcripts of interviewers with participants.

The techniques basically involves summarizing and qualitative analysis of messages that rely on the scientific method (including objectivity, inter-subjectivity, apriori design, reliability, validity, generalizability and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the context in which the message are created or presented. It is often involves building and applying a 'concept dictionary' or fixed vocabulary of terms on the basis of which words are extracted from the textual data for concording or statistical computation. 

Rapport

It is best understood as a set of practice and problems in qualitative research describing how simultaneously to get along with one's informants and get information from them. Specially, it refers to the establishment of good relationship between interviewers or ethnographers and their research subjects.

Rapport covers a range of moral and methodological concerns at the heart of the social inquiry, including empathy immersion, participation, friendship, honesty, collaboration, trust, exploitation, negotiation and loyalty.

Value-free Sociology

The role of value in sociological inquiry is debatable. As sociologists observe social reality of their own society, implicitly or explicitly the social research is value laden.

Beginning from August Comte, a positivist, advocated for the value free sociology and studied structure of the society. Likewise, Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx didn't give much importance to value while studying social structure.

Max Weber in his work The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism, 1904 gave importance to social action determined by value system which in turn leads to social consequences and social structures. Talcott Parsons in his Social System and Pattern Variables highlighted value system which is responsible for socialization, consequently leading to different social roles and social institutions. However, David J. Gray in his paper Value-free Sociology: a Doctrine of Hypocrisy and Irresponsibility argues that Durkheim's classical work Suicide did not shy away from value question. Durkheim discussed at some length the means by which the "evil" could be overcome. Gray also says value orientation in Comte's advocacy of sociocracy, Tönnies' bias for Gemeinschaft and opposed to Gesellschaft, Cooley's fascination for primary group and Veblen's condemnation of conspicuous leisure all testify to value commitment on their part.

Ideology and emergence of sociology

The term ideology refers to a set of ideas which presents only a partial view of reality. An ideological viewpoint also include 'value'. It involves not only a judgment about the way things are but also the way they ought to be. Nigel Harris says, "Our reality is the next man's ideology and vice versa."

For Marxists, ideology is a set of beliefs and values which express the interest of particular social group. Karl Mannheim distinguishes ruling class ideology or ruling ideology from Utopian ideology. Ruling ideology which obscures the real conditions of the society both to itself and others and thereby stabilizes it. While Utopian ideology advocates complete change on the vision of ideal society.

Mannheim viewed Marxism as Utopian ideology while functionalism as ruling ideology.

Sociology As Interpretative Discipline

Max Weber (1864-1920) was the founder of  "interpretive (Verstehen ) sociology". The basic premise of that is that the fact and data are fully amenable to the sensory observations. According to him, sociology makes critical interpretations on social action. All the social behaviour is viewed as observable form without. Even internal meaning and motives underlying the behaviour of a person are supposed to be shaped by forces outside him namely society. Max argues that social reality is characterized by "geist" or "consciousness". Due to the presence of consciousness, people ascribe meaning to the situations around them which include other people too. The meaning influence the subsequent behaviour. Consequently, any attempt to understand social reality must be taken into account for these meaning and motives. The meaning ascribed by the people are partly determined by the cultural norms and partly shaped by the individual actors.

Thus, an attempt to understand social behaviour should not stop simple at observation from without instead it should involve interpretation of underlying meaning and motives. This requires use of new method though which the emphatic liaison can be established between the observer and the actor or subject.

Empathetic liaison means that observer tries to place him or herself imaginatively in the actor's position. Having established empathetic liaison sociologist tries to figure out meaning and motives given by the actor. then rationally explain actor's behaviour in terms of those meaning and motives.

Sociology as Science

Evolution of sociology owes much to the science than any other branch of knowledge. Sociology started as a science of human societies and their problems. Science and scientific methodology have profound impact on sociological endeavor from the birth of youngest social child of the science i.e. sociology. In order to keep sociology away from philosophical speculations, religious commentaries and commonsense observations, classical sociologists or more precisely positivists relentlessly tried to establish it as a scientific discipline so much so that the founder, August Comte declared sociology as the queen of sciences. 

David Émile Durkheim became one of the earlier proponents to consolidate the emerging ideas and put the foundation of sociology as a scientific discipline. He argued that much like natural sciences which deal with the discovery of laws of nature, sociology is a scientific discipline which deals with the discovery of laws of social life. He was firm believer that these laws of society can be discovered and used in the betterment of human conditions. 

According to Max Weber, sociology is a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects. In "action" is included all human behaviour when and insofar as the acting individual attaches a subjective meaning to it. Action is social insofar as, by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual (or individuals), it takes account of the behaviour of others and is thereby oriented in its course.

But later sociologists started questioning the scientific status of sociology which was so whole heartily accepted by the classical thinkers. This became one the most ferociously debated topic in the history of evolution of the discipline.

Walter L. Wallace's Four sources of knowledge are

1. Authoritarian – from the position of a parent or king
2. Mystical – linked to a religious experience
3. Logical – rational e.g., mathematics
4. Scientific method – having a hypotheses and testing it rigorously

Although philosophy and mathematics may be true knowledge but not necessarily linked to the real world. Science, on the other hand allows others to repeat the method. The scientific findings can be replicated through experimentation universally. So, Wallace argues, it gives scientific method a claim to superiority. As discussed above, not everyone is having same opinion about sociology being tagged as science. In fact, different schools of thought have been established to support their own viewpoint about what sociology means and why should sociology be science or not.

Positivists believe that science can explain the universe. They use hypo-deductive reasoning to test their beliefs. This is when scientists present a theory and invite others to prove them wrong. It is based on the concept that nothing can be proven to be 100% true but theories can be proven false. I would never be able to prove that I am going to live forever but others could quite easily prove that I won’t by killing me. It is reasoned that if a theory cannot be proven wrong it has an increased likelihood of being correct/true (but we will never be 100% sure) According to positivists, for theories to be scientific they must be testable/falsifiable. Positivists believe that a scientifically backed theory is far more valid than one that is not backed up with hard evidence. Positivists see the world as being full of concrete testable realities and use quantitative methods to support their theories.

Interpretivists are very skeptical about the positivists’ scientific claims. They see the world as a largely socially constructed place. Reality as we understand it only exists because of agreed shared concepts. Knowledge itself is whatever we agree it to be. For example, certain kind of greetings in particular community might be offensive in other! Context is, therefore, a hugely important aspect of knowledge itself and is really important when we are trying to understand/interpret a situation. Interpretivists don’t think that scientific methodology is useful to the study of human interactions or sociology in general. They see it as invalid because it often removes the context or interferes in some way with the subject matter. Interpretivists use qualitative research techniques such as ethnographic techniques, observations and unstructured interviews.

But even amongst positivists there is no agreement as to whether a theoretical subject such as sociology should be considered to be truly scientific. An examination of what constitutes a science might make things clearer! Science must have testable concepts rely on accurate gathering of information to get reliable measurable data be able to make generalizations based on the research conducted to establish universal laws be objective (unbiased) based on practical investigations empirical evidence.

What is Science?

Generally accepted definition of science is that it is organized body of knowledge which is empirical, testable, objective, cumulative and theoretical. Here, empirical means knowledge through sense i.e. tested physically. Testable implies that it can be verified or refuted. Falsification is the most important characteristic as far as Karl Popper is concerned. ‘Being theoretical’ means that it can predict the relationship between given variables in a certain condition. Science is cumulative i.e., both the evolution of theories and collection of data are cumulative. Theories change and become more complex over time. Objective knowledge is one which is pursued without fear and favor i.e. without value judgment.

Sociology cannot use laboratory experiments to test theories. It cannot isolate the variables in a situation but this is true of cosmology, meteorology and animal behaviour which are also open systems. This does not stop theories being tested by observation. Sociologists claim that comparative methods allow testing of a result (triangulation). Sociology can predict how groups of people will react. The proposition of patterns is something that can be tested. Also, there are doubts about objectivity in sociological inquiry.

Karl Popper says that for a subject to be scientific it must be testable using hypo-deductive reasoning It must have testable concepts that could be proven wrong using scientific methodology ( falsified ) You must, therefore, be able to isolate an independent variable and establish causal links between it and its consequences. Thomas Kuhn uses the concept of ideological paradigms to explain why scientists are in not infallible. He points out that all science operates under an ideological paradigm. This is a fixed belief or set of beliefs that most of the community accept to be true and, therefore, interpret all scientific findings from that viewpoint. Currently a useful paradigm is the theory of evolution. It is a useful practice and it is hard to imagine how a system would work without such agreement but it is arrogant and foolish to forget that the initial premise is a theory and may be wrong as historically it has been many times. But Kuhn also says for a subject to really be considered a science it should at least have a prevailing paradigm, an overriding belief system that most of its practitioners accept.

It is already obvious that much Sociological research would struggle to meet all of these criteria.

Perspectives

Positivism in Sociology

Positivists feel that it is valid to use scientific methods despite the fact that the independent variable can rarely be fully isolated They think that the methodology itself is still useful and is the most reliable tool in searching for Knowledge itself, as far as they are concerned, is a concrete reality that can be measured and tested They feel that there is such a thing as a social fact

Interactionism in Sociology

Integrationists do not agree that there is such a thing as a social fact in the same sense that positivists view it They do not think knowledge itself is concrete or testable just a shared reality Consequently, it is fairly immaterial whether sociology meets the criteria of science They question the validity of science and feel that the experimental process itself often contaminates what it is meant to be learning about

Science and the modern world - The postmodernist criticism

By claiming a monopoly on explanation, scientists have replaced priests as the sources of truth. There are many questions that are not asked and cannot be answered by science. What is life for? What is justice? Are we responsible for other people? By posing as having an answer for everything science is cheapening life

Sociology can’t and shouldn't be a science 

The ideas of Schutz, Billig and Bauman

Durkheim thought society was like a building with hidden structure that could be uncovered. But if we are actors who continually construct society by the meanings we give to actions and explanations of behavior then the detached approach of the scientist is both inappropriate and impossible

Why does it matter if Sociology is a science?

To ensure prestige so the subject can gain funding for teaching and research at universities To give weight to its findings so that they have the authority by being backed by scientific method To give protections: Sociology has been threatened in different countries (from the Prussian civil servants to Robert Mugabe and Margaret Thatcher) as a source of subjective political criticism

Conclusion

Sociology wanted to be seen as a science for status. Scientists have pointed to aspects of sociology and said that it can’t meet all the criteria. Positivists believe by rigorous research design (with triangulation) there can be a social science. Science itself does not meet all the criteria of being scientific! Interactionists think the debate itself is stuck in an age of outdated notions that there is a fixed, knowable world out there to be discovered. There are many means of discovery of which science is only one. 

Reference

• Is sociology science?

The thinkers

Sociological Thinkers

These are the heroes of Sociology. They have established and nurtured the discipline.They are the legends.

Sociology and commonsense

In broadest sense, commonsense is philosophy and rationality is science. Sociology stands in between these two. The question arises: Is sociology based on -

• Sociologist's commonsense or
• People's commonsense or
• absolute rationality

There is a lot of confusion and debate on this issue. Renaissance was mother of this debate. Earlier people were explaining creation of universe, life and death etc. based on culturally defined commonsense knowledge. This was challenged by Enlightenment scholars and scientists such as Galileo Galilei, Newton etc. These scholars emphasized on science i.e. rationality, objectivity and value neutrality in the pursuit of knowledge. Thus, they rejected the orthodox or commonsense based beliefs and believed that it was product of religious dogmas, superstitions and speculations. G E Moore and Thomas Reid believed that commonsense is result of dogma, superstition and myth. Sociology grew in the environment when science was being celebrated in every faculty of the knowledge. thus, naturally, sociology rejected commonsense, giving rise to positivist school of thought in sociological field of inquiry. The proponent of this school were Saint Simon, August Comte,  Emile Durkheim etc.This school was criticized and challenged by other streams of thought in later half of the 19th century. Hermeneutical school promoted by Dilthey argued that people's actions are guided by their own understanding and thus commonsense is guide to the social action. Therefore, it can not be ignored and must be respected by sociological research. Another school, the phenomenology, proposed by Edmund Husserl, argued that social life is unorganized and people have different opinion about it based on their own experience or commonsense which gives shape to real world. Thus, it gives absolute credence to commonsense, rejecting the positivists ideas. Max Weber was the first scholar who actually dealt with this subject in depth. He for the first time highlighted the distinction between sociologist's and people's commonsense. Sociologist's commonsense is to develop concepts, paradigms and theoretical model to understand essence of reality. Sociologist should not develop judgement about people's commonsense or motive behind their actions rather than study them objectivity from their own point of view. He believed that commonsense has same place in the field of sociological inquiry as scientific method. Thus, both are complementary to each other. Einstein believe that a lot of commonsense gets into the mind of an individual by the time he attends 18 years of age. Contemporary sociology is enriched with the contribution of reflexive sociologists, may that be feminists, postmodernists or critical theorists. They all consider that people make social life driven by different cognitive purposes at different points of time. So a sociologist must be given complete freedom to use his commonsense knowledge to understand the reality in distinct ways. Scientific method explains reality in mechanical mathematical perspective. 

Thus, sociology evolved as a discipline rejecting the commonsense in favor of science. It grew into a discipline by respecting the both and finally it is maturing by conceptualizing that commonsense is mother of science. Hence commonsense can't be replaced by science. 

Comparison with other social sciences

Sociology is one of a group of social sciences, which also includes anthropology, economics, political science and history. Also it is the youngest social science, so it had advantage of borrowing concepts and ideas from other sister social sciences. But, as it develops into distinct and specialized discipline, other discipline also getting help from sociological theories and interpretations. The scope of sociology tells us that sociology is a general science that deals with society as whole, and other social sciences as specific discipline which concentrate on different aspects of the social life. Except this, the divisions among the various social sciences are not clear-cut, and all share a certain range of common interests, concepts and methods.

Sociology and History

Historical dimensions of sociological understanding are indeed basic. We can only understand distinctive character of the world today through the comparison of present (sociology) with the past (history). The common ground between sociology and history is the society. But while sociology concerns with the present and to some extend with future, history studies past only. We know this very well that present can not be analysed without reference to the past. Thus, sociological analysis is based on historical data. The relationship between these two stems from the facts that both are social science disciplines and both are concerned with human activities and events. Except these commonalities, there are subtle differences also. Sociology looks into only those past events which exemplify social process and pattern that they exhibit. History occupies itself with difference in similar events and sociology deals with the similarities in different events. History is about description of the past events while sociology deals with the causes of those events and their present and future implications. While history is particularizing and descriptive, sociology is a generalizing and analytical discipline. Robert Bierstedt has rightly put it - 

If past is of as a continuous cloth unrolling through the centuries, history is interested in the individual threads and strands that make it up; sociology is in the patterns it exhibits.

History without sociology is fruitless, sociology without history is rootless. Present stands on the edifice of the past. Thus, relationship between sociology and history is symbiotic.

Intellectual background of emergence of sociology

The history of sociology as a discipline is just one hundred seventy five years old. Understanding the history of a discipline helps us understand the discipline. Sociology compared to other sciences is new in its origin. It emerged as a response to the forces of change which took place during eighteen and nineteen centuries in Europe. Much of the early sociology was influences by the thinkers of the Enlightenment of the eighteen century. Earlier thinkers were influenced by the philosophy of the history i. e., society must have progressed through series of  the stages from simple to complex. Hegel, Adam Smith, Ferguson etc. tried to develop specific theories in their own time. Rousseau's theory of social contract and ideology liberty, equality and fraternity left indelible impression on the European society. Biological theory of evolution of Darwin, Spencer etc ultimately influenced the social thinkers to analyse the states of social evolution. As a result sociology moved towards evolutionary approach seeking to identify and account for the principal stages in the social evolution.  The work of Durkheim come under this category. Post industrial revolution survey of social conditions were conducted to understand poverty and its causes and other problems. Thinkers of this era like Marx, Weber etc. provided profound insight into the social milieu and gave impetus to the development of sociology.

Practical significance of sociology

The practical significance of sociology is as follows:

1. To better understand the society through empirical evidences rather than commonsense observations
2. To unravel the connection between individual problems and social issues of the day
3. To discover unsuspected connections between social actions and their consequences through sociological imagination
4. Applied social sciences can use sociological knowledge to enhance its efficiency and methodology for example Business is the applied science that utilizes the objective knowledge gained in economics, a pure science
5. Social workers can use this knowledge to build better society
6. Law makers can utilize sociological findings to make public policy which are better suited and effective 
7. Individual who wants to gain insight into the society

Social reconstruction is not the acknowledged purpose of sociology, although sociological knowledge is useful tool for that purpose.

References

Abraham, M. Francis (2006). Contemporary Sociology: An Introduction to Concepts and Theories. New Delhi: Oxford University Press

Characteristics of sociology as a discipline

There are three major characteristics of sociology as a discipline - 

1. It is a social science which deals with social system and processes.
2. It is a general social science that deals with society as a whole while other social sciences deals with particular aspect of society.
3. Sociology is a pure science not an applied science. There is a popular misconception that sociology is somehow concerned with social welfare and that is designed to solve  social problems and built a better society. However, that is not the intent discipline  of sociology as a scientific endeavor. Sociology is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge about society, knowledge that can be used for betterment of society or its destruction. 

This acquired knowledge will help the social workers who want to build better society or for leaders of government who want to formulate public policies. 

References

Abraham, M. Francis (2006). Contemporary Sociology: An Introduction to Concepts and Theories. New Delhi: Oxford University Press

Emergence of sociology

Society was earlier studied by religious and political philosophers. But sociology emerged as a distinct science in 19th century Europe. Europe was then passing through a period of immense change which had set in with French and Industrial revolutions. Indeed, sociology can be considered, above all a science of new industrial society.